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Why, from the Zhou dynasty through the Qin, Han, and even Tang, did nomadic tribes always come to the Central Plains to plunder and leave? Poverty.
It wasn't until the Yuan dynasty that nomads first pursued a cohesive strategic goal, launching nation-building campaigns, no longer scattered like sand.
But were the nomads truly so poor?
In a sense, if the wealth of agrarian societies lay in land, the nomads' "land" was their cattle and sheep.
Historical records note that during Emperor Wu's reign, General Wei Qing, then a chariot and cavalry general, "…crossed the West River to Gaoque, capturing 2,300 heads, seizing all chariots, supplies, and livestock, and was enfeoffed as a marquis. He then pacified Henan, …attacked Puní and Fuli, slaying elite troops, capturing 3,071 prisoners, …and drove back over a million horses, cattle, and sheep, returning with all armored troops intact, earning an additional 3,000 households…"
"Over a million horses, cattle, and sheep" meant seizing the Xiongnu's "land" entirely, dealing them a crippling blow that left them terrified.
But where did this "land" end up?
These animals didn't breed—big cattle birthing calves, big horses foaling colts—to thrive on Central Plains soil, boosting Han pastoralism and ushering in an era of four-legged prosperity…
Instead, they fueled the slaughter industry. Beyond increasing some people's fat intake, they didn't shift the Han's agrarian-pastoral balance.
The Central Plains excelled in agriculture, not pastoralism. In the tech tree of animal husbandry, they mastered sheep but not horses…
Warhorses required high care. Stables couldn't produce them; they needed vast, fertile grazing lands for herds to grow naturally. Only then could true warhorses be bred.
The Central Plains neither controlled such grasslands nor the people skilled in raising horses, leaving them a step behind in mobility.
"Poverty is the most fearsome and also the most tragic force," Fei Qian said, gazing at the bustling market outside the camp. "When you're poor, you have nothing but your worthless life, nothing to fear losing. Taking anything by force feels like a gain. Kill one, break even; kill two, profit… Laws, morals—before absolute poverty, they're empty words…"
In any dynasty, any system, transitioning from chaos to order, the fear isn't too many middle-class people but too few…
Ma Yan turned to the lively market, pondered, and nodded. "So that's why you ordered trades to use five-zhu coins and always give the Hu some change?"
Fei Qian chuckled. "Yes. Most Hu won't keep the coins but trade them here. We don't need to invest much money, but those who've traded here will learn what 'money' is and tell their families, their friends…"
This small act held deeper meaning. Ma Yan didn't fully grasp it, and Fei Qian didn't elaborate. It seemed minor—giving an extra coin or two—but it built the Hu's sense of money, fostered trust in their minds, and…
Since its inception, the concept of commodity exchange has been bloody…
The Hu's social structure in the Han era was complex, blending parts of primitive, slave, and feudal societies.
Most Hu lived in tribes, with some mutual aid within. They fought as tribal units, sharing spoils, much like primitive societies.
Yet their chieftains and leaders fed off the lower Hu, akin to slave masters. Captives from Han lands often became their slaves, marking slave society traits.
At the top, a loose feudal system prevailed. The khan's court, usually in the richest grasslands, appointed Left and Right Wise Kings, who held autonomous military and political power. Below them were Left and Right Guli Kings, then generals, reflecting feudal elements.
This complex structure was unstable. Natural or human disasters sparked upheaval. The split between Northern and Southern Xiongnu, and the recent assassination of old Khan Qiangqu, proved it.
"Only those who've had something fear losing it…" Fei Qian said to Ma Yan. "What we're doing is making the Hu feel they've had something…"
Why did the Hu wail after losing Yinshan? They had it, then lost it, tearing their hearts.
Wealth, or private property, since primitive times, has driven societal change. Money is its tangible form.
Ma Yan thought, then said, "But trading with the Hu… if they grow strong, won't they become a threat?"
Fei Qian gripped his spear, attempting a flourish, but it wobbled, far from Ma Yan's perfect, rounded ones.
"So we must keep weapons in hand…"
Fei Qian looked at the iron forge rising in the camp and the soldiers drilling outside. "The iron from Luoyang will be melted and forged into blades and armor for our men. These are our swords and shields! Don't worry if the Hu grow strong—focus on whether we're strong enough…"
Looking at Ma Yan, he said, "Chengyuan, not only dead Hu are good Hu. Obedient Hu are good citizens too… good Hu!"