Chapter 6 — Learning (Audio-Friendly Notes)
Reflexes are simple, automatic responses to specific stimuli. For example, the knee-jerk reaction is a reflex. Instincts are more complex, innate behaviors that are triggered by broader events, such as migration or mating behaviors. Both reflexes and instincts are not learned.
Habituation is a type of learning in which repeated exposure to a stimulus reduces your response to it over time. For example, you might stop noticing the sound of a fan after being around it for a while. Associative learning happens when we make a connection between two events. Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning are all types of associative learning.
Classical conditioning occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally triggers a response. The unconditioned stimulus, or UCS, is a stimulus that naturally triggers a response, such as food. The unconditioned response, or UCR, is the natural reaction to the UCS, like salivating when food is present. A neutral stimulus, or NS, initially does not produce a response, but after repeated pairing with the UCS, it becomes a conditioned stimulus, or CS, which triggers a conditioned response, or CR.
During acquisition, the NS becomes a CS through repeated pairings with the UCS. For the strongest learning, the NS should be presented immediately before the UCS. Extinction occurs when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS, which causes the conditioned response to weaken or disappear. Stimulus generalization happens when similar stimuli produce the same conditioned response. Stimulus discrimination occurs when we learn to respond only to the CS and not to similar stimuli.
The Little Albert experiment showed that fear can be classically conditioned. A baby named Albert learned to fear a white rat when it was paired with a loud noise. He also showed stimulus generalization because he became afraid of other white, furry objects. The Little Peter experiment demonstrated that fear can be unlearned through gradual exposure combined with positive experiences. This led to the development of systematic desensitization, a therapy in which a person is gradually exposed to a feared stimulus while practicing relaxation.
Taste aversion is a special type of classical conditioning in which a person or animal learns to avoid a particular food after only one negative experience, such as getting sick. Unlike most classical conditioning, taste aversion can occur even if the illness happens several hours after eating the food. This is thought to be an evolutionary survival mechanism.
Operant conditioning is learning that occurs based on the consequences of behavior. Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior, while punishment decreases it. Extinction in operant conditioning happens when reinforcement is no longer given, causing the behavior to gradually decrease.
There are four types of consequences in operant conditioning. Positive reinforcement adds something pleasant to increase behavior, such as giving a child candy for cleaning their room. Negative reinforcement removes something unpleasant to increase behavior, like fastening a seatbelt to stop the car alarm from beeping. Positive punishment adds something unpleasant to decrease behavior, such as scolding a child. Negative punishment removes something pleasant to decrease behavior, like taking away a toy.
Continuous reinforcement occurs when a behavior is reinforced every time it happens. This leads to fast learning but is more susceptible to extinction. Partial reinforcement happens when behavior is reinforced only some of the time. This leads to slower learning but makes the behavior more resistant to extinction.
There are several drawbacks to punishment. Punishment can create fear or anxiety, can lead to aggression, may only suppress behavior when the punisher is present, and does not teach the correct behavior. Reinforcement also has drawbacks. Over-relying on external rewards can reduce intrinsic motivation, which is doing something because it is enjoyable. Extrinsic motivation is doing something for a reward or to avoid punishment.
Latent learning occurs when learning happens without reinforcement and is not demonstrated until it is needed. Observational learning is learning by watching the behavior of others. We are more likely to imitate someone if we pay attention, remember the behavior, are able to reproduce it, and are motivated to do so. Vicarious reinforcement occurs when we see someone else being rewarded, which makes us more likely to imitate the behavior. Vicarious punishment occurs when we see someone else being punished, which makes us less likely to imitate the behavior.