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[Another reason the Mongols failed at sinicization was that they tried to learn too much, and too indiscriminately.
One defining trait of Yuan culture was its sheer eclecticism. If the Four Great Classical Novels had been born in that era, they might well have been blended into a single volume about Jia Baoyu and Lin Daiyu swearing brotherhood in the Peach Garden on a snowy night, then escorting Tang Sanzang to the Rongguo Mansion to obtain the roster of the One Hundred and Eight Demon Stars.
Along the road of western campaigns, the Mongols carried conquest and glory outward. In return, the lands and peoples they subjugated used that same arterial route to send back Christianity, Islam of the Great Food, and Tibetan Lamaism. All of these left deep marks upon the Mongols.
Compared to the Confucian classics, such religious traditions required far less threshold learning. Naturally, they were more readily embraced.
A typical example is Emperor Zhaozong of Northern Yuan. On the eve of being driven from Dadu, he sighed: "Master Li taught me the Confucian books for many years, yet I could not grasp their meaning. A monk from the Western Regions taught me Buddhist sutras, and in a single night I understood."
One emblematic episode was the Debate at Da'an Pavilion in 1258, on the eve of the Yuan founding.
Its roots trace back to 1220, when the Quanzhen patriarch Qiu Chuji journeyed to Central Asia to meet Temüjin during the western campaigns. Qiu Chuji was eloquent, and Temüjin, encountering for the first time a major religion beyond the steppe offering allegiance, granted him three sweeping privileges.
First, total tax exemption for Quanzhen adherents.
Second, authority over all religions under Mongol rule, with Qiu Chuji at their head.
Third, the right to establish temples and ordain followers anywhere under Mongol jurisdiction without restriction.
These privileges elevated Qiu Chuji into what was effectively "Imperial Teacher to the Sovereign, Father of the Faith under Heaven." Quanzhen flourished under Mongol favor. Beyond building Daoist temples and ordaining clergy, they forcibly converted Buddhist monasteries and Confucian shrines in major cities into Daoist establishments, even compelling monks and scholars into Daoist robes. Tensions escalated accordingly.
Meanwhile, other religions followed the returning armies into the empire. Among them, Tibetan Lamaism advanced with particular speed, actively submitting and offering to administer Tibetan regions on behalf of the Yuan.
Modern scholars summarize the Mongols' acceptance of Lamaism as stemming first from political calculation, and second from environmental affinity. Both peoples inhabited harsh, high plateau climates and shared traditions of nature veneration.
There was also another factor. Lamaism presented doctrines in accessible form, aligned with Mongol temperament, and incorporated ritual practices that treated worldly joy as part of religious fulfillment. Such customs accorded more readily with Mongol ethics than Confucian, Daoist, or mainstream Buddhist restraint.
Most crucially, the privileges once rashly granted to Qiu Chuji were simply too extensive. A southern commoner who might otherwise be little more than a slave could join Quanzhen and instantly rise in status. Even if Mongols tolerated this, other sects would not.
Thus from 1254 onward, friction between Buddhism and Daoism intensified, culminating in the 1258 Da'an Pavilion debate where both sides deployed their foremost representatives.
The debate's outcome was hardly mysterious. The Daoist text Laozi Converts the Barbarians was vulnerable to scrutiny. The Buddhist champion, the Lamaist prodigy Phagpa, was a close confidant of Kublai. The presiding officials were appointed by Kublai. Moreover, the Mongol elite had already resolved to suppress Daoism. The result was a Buddhist victory, with seventeen Daoist leaders shaved and ordained as monks.
Thereafter, the bond between Lamaism and Kublai deepened. After the Yuan founding, Lamaism attained even more exalted status as state religion. According to the History of Yuan, within a century all imperial clan members adhered to it. At court, the Imperial Preceptor could sit, while generals and chancellors stood.
Quanzhen and Lamaism differed entirely in doctrine, yet once empowered their conduct bore striking resemblance. Exploiting privileges, annexing land and tenants, all of it was routine. In that sense, they dug an admirable grave for Great Yuan.
It must also be acknowledged that from the Yuan's elevation of Lamaism onward, ties between Tibet and the Central Plains strengthened, carrying lasting historical significance.
Some modern views even suggest that the unchecked expansion of Lamaism was not unrelated to Kublai's depression in his later years.
The causes of that depression were familiar across dynasties: military setbacks abroad, and in old age the loss of wife and son.]
In Ganlu Hall, Li Chengqian's ears sharpened the instant he heard his name.
"Father, what did I learn so well?"
There was genuine delight in his voice. Being mentioned by posterity was no small matter.
Yet when the surrounding context assembled itself in his mind, uncertainty crept in. This did not sound entirely like praise.
Li Shimin's expression was unusually complicated. The earlier jest about his eldest son imitating Turkic customs had stirred discomfort, and for a moment he had even considered rapping Li Chengqian lightly on the head.
But upon hearing that the Yuan emperor had fallen into despair after losing wife and son, that impulse dissipated entirely.
He reached out and rested his hand upon his son's shoulder. The memory of Zhu Hongwu introducing the Ming Crown Prince with unmistakable pride surfaced unbidden, and for the briefest instant there was something like envy in the Tang emperor's eyes.
The entire hall heard him ask calmly,
"Chengqian, do you wish to be emperor?"
Li Chengqian trembled outright. His first instinct was to bow and plead guilt. He had read the Book of Han and knew the fate of the Crown Prince Li of old.
Yet the hand on his shoulder tightened, firm as an eagle's talon, preventing even the slightest bend of his waist. When he lifted his head, he met his father's gaze, gentle and faintly smiling.
"You are Crown Prince. Speak boldly."
The baseless fear dissolved. In its place returned the father who had ridden with him, practiced archery beside him, unfurled maps to explain mountains and rivers, and celebrated festivals together.
"I do."
"Only one with such resolve deserves to be Crown Prince of Great Tang."
The smile in Li Shimin's eyes softened into something deeper, tinged with gravity Li Chengqian could not yet comprehend.
"A ruler must govern the people. To govern the people, one must first know them. That is why I intended you to tour Hebei."
"After returning from Hebei, you will go west as well. You shall not return until Gaochang is subdued."
"When that time comes, you may follow the example of the Ming Crown Prince and participate in governance."
The earlier confusion vanished from Li Chengqian's mind, replaced entirely by excitement.
At the same moment, within Huagai Hall, Zhu Yuanzhang slapped his thigh.
"What Yuan Shizu endured in his later years. Pitiful indeed."