Reflex vs. InstinctReflex: A simple, automatic response to a specific stimulus (knee jerk, blinking). Not learned.
Instinct: More complex, innate behavioral patterns triggered by broader events (migration, mating behaviors). Also not learned, but more elaborate than reflexes.
HabituationA type of non-associative learning where repeated exposure to a stimulus causes a decrease in response.
Example: No longer noticing the sound of a fan.
Associative LearningLearning that two events go together.
Two main types:
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Classical ConditioningLearning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that already produces a response.
Key TermsUnconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
A stimulus that naturally produces a response (food).
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
A natural, reflexive response to the UCS (salivation to food).
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
A stimulus that initially causes no response (bell before conditioning).
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Former NS that now triggers a learned response (bell after conditioning).
Conditioned Response (CR)
The learned response to the CS (salivation to bell).
Processes in Classical ConditioningAcquisitionLearning phase where the NS becomes the CS.
Order matters:
➡️ NS should come right before the UCS to form the strongest association.
ExtinctionWeakening of the CR when the CS is presented without the UCS.
Example: Bell repeatedly rung without food → salivation decreases.
Stimulus GeneralizationA CR happens to a stimulus similar to the CS.
Dog salivates to a similar-sounding bell.
Stimulus DiscriminationLearning to respond only to the CS, not to similar stimuli.
Little Albert ExperimentConducted by John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner.
Demonstrated classical conditioning of fear.
Albert learned to fear a white rat after it was paired with a loud noise.
Showed:
Emotions can be learned.
Stimulus generalization (he feared similar white/furry things).
Little Peter ExperimentConducted by Mary Cover Jones.
Demonstrated how fear can be unlearned.
Peter was gradually exposed to a feared rabbit while receiving something pleasant (candy).
Systematic DesensitizationA therapy technique using gradual exposure + relaxation to reduce phobias.
Based on classical conditioning principles.
Taste AversionA special form of classical conditioning:
Only one pairing needed.
Long delay between eating food and getting sick.
Evolution-based survival mechanism.
Operant ConditioningLearning based on consequences (rewards or punishments).
Reinforcement vs. PunishmentReinforcement → Increases a behavior.
Punishment → Decreases a behavior.
Extinguishing Operant BehaviorStop the reinforcement → behavior weakens.
4 Types of ConsequencesType
Definition
Positive Reinforcement
Add something good → behavior increases (give candy).
Negative Reinforcement
Remove something bad → behavior increases (seatbelt stops beeping).
Positive Punishment
Add something bad → behavior decreases (scolding).
Negative Punishment
Remove something good → behavior decreases (take phone away).
Continuous vs. Partial ReinforcementContinuous: Reward every time → fast learning but weak resistance to extinction.
Partial (intermittent): Reward sometimes → slower learning but very strong resistance to extinction.
➡️ Partial reinforcement is more resistant to extinction.
Drawbacks of PunishmentTeaches fear, not correct behavior.
Can cause aggression.
Behavior may be suppressed only when punisher is present.
Doesn't teach the desired behavior, only what not to do.
Drawback of ReinforcementCan reduce intrinsic motivation (doing something because you enjoy it).
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic MotivationIntrinsic: Doing something because it's enjoyable.
Extrinsic: Doing something for reward or to avoid punishment.
Latent LearningLearning that occurs without reinforcement, but isn't shown until needed.
Tolman's rats learned the maze even without rewards.
Observational LearningLearning by watching others.
4 Factors That Increase Imitation (lecture)Attention (we must pay attention)
Retention (remember what we saw)
Reproduction (ability to imitate)
Motivation (reason to imitate)
Vicarious Reinforcement/PunishmentSeeing someone else get rewarded or punished influences whether we imitate the behavior.
END OF CHAPTER 6
✅ Chapter 7 — Cognition
Mental RepresentationMental Representation: An internal mental symbol used to stand in for objects, ideas, or events.
Analog vs. Symbolic RepresentationAnalog: Picture-like mental images (imagining your bedroom).
Symbolic: Abstract representations like words or numbers ("cat," "3").
Concepts & PrototypesConcept: A mental category (e.g., "fruit").
Prototype: The best or most typical example of a concept (e.g., apple = prototypical fruit).
Problem Solving & Decision MakingInsightA sudden "Aha!" solution.
Trial-and-ErrorTrying different solutions until one works.
AlgorithmA step-by-step method that guarantees a correct answer (math formula).
HeuristicA mental shortcut; fast but can lead to errors.
5 Conditions We Use HeuristicsTime pressure
Limited information
Too much information
Low importance decisions
We want to avoid mental effort
Major Heuristics & BiasesAvailability HeuristicJudging likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind.
Leads to errors because memory ease ≠ real probability.
Simulation HeuristicImagining how events could have happened changes our judgments (e.g., "almost winning" feels worse).
Representativeness HeuristicJudging by similarity to a prototype; leads to ignoring actual statistics/base rates.
Anchoring & AdjustmentWe rely too heavily on an initial number (anchor) and adjust too little.
Framing effect: The way information is presented affects decisions (90% survival vs. 10% mortality).
Psychological BiasesOverconfidence Bias: We overestimate our accuracy.
Hindsight Bias: "I knew it all along."
Bias to Perceive Order in Random Events: We see patterns where none exist.
Confirmation Bias: Seeking information that confirms our beliefs.
IntelligenceSpearmanBelieved in one general intelligence: g.
Crystallized vs. Fluid IntelligenceCrystallized: Knowledge from experience (facts).
Fluid: Problem-solving, reasoning, flexibility.
Sternberg's Triarchic TheoryAnalytic Intelligence: Academic problem solving
Creative Intelligence: Novel solutions
Practical Intelligence: "Street smarts"
➡️ Analytic is most emphasized in schools.
Divergent vs. Convergent ThinkingDivergent: Many possible solutions (creativity).
Convergent: One right solution (tests).
Gardner's 9 IntelligencesBelieved people have multiple intelligences, and each person has one they excel most in.
(Examples: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, existential.)
Emotional IntelligenceAbility to understand, use, and manage emotions in yourself and others.
IQ ConceptsIntelligence/Age NormStandards used to compare someone's performance to others their age.
Mental AgeAge level at which someone performs intellectually.
IQ ScoreModern formula is based on comparing your performance to people your age.
Average IQ = 100.
Normal DistributionScores cluster around average in a bell-shaped curve.
Genetics & EnvironmentIntelligence is:
Partially genetic
Partially environmental (education, parenting, poverty, nutrition)
Reflex vs. InstinctReflex: A simple, automatic response to a specific stimulus (knee jerk, blinking). Not learned.
Instinct: More complex, innate behavioral patterns triggered by broader events (migration, mating behaviors). Also not learned, but more elaborate than reflexes.
HabituationA type of non-associative learning where repeated exposure to a stimulus causes a decrease in response.
Example: No longer noticing the sound of a fan.
Associative LearningLearning that two events go together.
Two main types:
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Classical ConditioningLearning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that already produces a response.
Key TermsUnconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
A stimulus that naturally produces a response (food).
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
A natural, reflexive response to the UCS (salivation to food).
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
A stimulus that initially causes no response (bell before conditioning).
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Former NS that now triggers a learned response (bell after conditioning).
Conditioned Response (CR)
The learned response to the CS (salivation to bell).
Processes in Classical ConditioningAcquisitionLearning phase where the NS becomes the CS.
Order matters:
➡️ NS should come right before the UCS to form the strongest association.
ExtinctionWeakening of the CR when the CS is presented without the UCS.
Example: Bell repeatedly rung without food → salivation decreases.
Stimulus GeneralizationA CR happens to a stimulus similar to the CS.
Dog salivates to a similar-sounding bell.
Stimulus DiscriminationLearning to respond only to the CS, not to similar stimuli.
Little Albert ExperimentConducted by John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner.
Demonstrated classical conditioning of fear.
Albert learned to fear a white rat after it was paired with a loud noise.
Showed:
Emotions can be learned.
Stimulus generalization (he feared similar white/furry things).
Little Peter ExperimentConducted by Mary Cover Jones.
Demonstrated how fear can be unlearned.
Peter was gradually exposed to a feared rabbit while receiving something pleasant (candy).
Systematic DesensitizationA therapy technique using gradual exposure + relaxation to reduce phobias.
Based on classical conditioning principles.
Taste AversionA special form of classical conditioning:
Only one pairing needed.
Long delay between eating food and getting sick.
Evolution-based survival mechanism.
Operant ConditioningLearning based on consequences (rewards or punishments).
Reinforcement vs. PunishmentReinforcement → Increases a behavior.
Punishment → Decreases a behavior.
Extinguishing Operant BehaviorStop the reinforcement → behavior weakens.
4 Types of ConsequencesType
Definition
Positive Reinforcement
Add something good → behavior increases (give candy).
Negative Reinforcement
Remove something bad → behavior increases (seatbelt stops beeping).
Positive Punishment
Add something bad → behavior decreases (scolding).
Negative Punishment
Remove something good → behavior decreases (take phone away).
Continuous vs. Partial ReinforcementContinuous: Reward every time → fast learning but weak resistance to extinction.
Partial (intermittent): Reward sometimes → slower learning but very strong resistance to extinction.
➡️ Partial reinforcement is more resistant to extinction.
Drawbacks of PunishmentTeaches fear, not correct behavior.
Can cause aggression.
Behavior may be suppressed only when punisher is present.
Doesn't teach the desired behavior, only what not to do.
Drawback of ReinforcementCan reduce intrinsic motivation (doing something because you enjoy it).
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic MotivationIntrinsic: Doing something because it's enjoyable.
Extrinsic: Doing something for reward or to avoid punishment.
Latent LearningLearning that occurs without reinforcement, but isn't shown until needed.
Tolman's rats learned the maze even without rewards.
Observational LearningLearning by watching others.
4 Factors That Increase Imitation (lecture)Attention (we must pay attention)
Retention (remember what we saw)
Reproduction (ability to imitate)
Motivation (reason to imitate)
Vicarious Reinforcement/PunishmentSeeing someone else get rewarded or punished influences whether we imitate the behavior.
END OF CHAPTER 6
✅ Chapter 7 — Cognition
Mental RepresentationMental Representation: An internal mental symbol used to stand in for objects, ideas, or events.
Analog vs. Symbolic RepresentationAnalog: Picture-like mental images (imagining your bedroom).
Symbolic: Abstract representations like words or numbers ("cat," "3").
Concepts & PrototypesConcept: A mental category (e.g., "fruit").
Prototype: The best or most typical example of a concept (e.g., apple = prototypical fruit).
Problem Solving & Decision MakingInsightA sudden "Aha!" solution.
Trial-and-ErrorTrying different solutions until one works.
AlgorithmA step-by-step method that guarantees a correct answer (math formula).
HeuristicA mental shortcut; fast but can lead to errors.
5 Conditions We Use HeuristicsTime pressure
Limited information
Too much information
Low importance decisions
We want to avoid mental effort
Major Heuristics & BiasesAvailability HeuristicJudging likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind.
Leads to errors because memory ease ≠ real probability.
Simulation HeuristicImagining how events could have happened changes our judgments (e.g., "almost winning" feels worse).
Representativeness HeuristicJudging by similarity to a prototype; leads to ignoring actual statistics/base rates.
Anchoring & AdjustmentWe rely too heavily on an initial number (anchor) and adjust too little.
Framing effect: The way information is presented affects decisions (90% survival vs. 10% mortality).
Psychological BiasesOverconfidence Bias: We overestimate our accuracy.
Hindsight Bias: "I knew it all along."
Bias to Perceive Order in Random Events: We see patterns where none exist.
Confirmation Bias: Seeking information that confirms our beliefs.
IntelligenceSpearmanBelieved in one general intelligence: g.
Crystallized vs. Fluid IntelligenceCrystallized: Knowledge from experience (facts).
Fluid: Problem-solving, reasoning, flexibility.
Sternberg's Triarchic TheoryAnalytic Intelligence: Academic problem solving
Creative Intelligence: Novel solutions
Practical Intelligence: "Street smarts"
➡️ Analytic is most emphasized in schools.
Divergent vs. Convergent ThinkingDivergent: Many possible solutions (creativity).
Convergent: One right solution (tests).
Gardner's 9 IntelligencesBelieved people have multiple intelligences, and each person has one they excel most in.
(Examples: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, existential.)
Emotional IntelligenceAbility to understand, use, and manage emotions in yourself and others.
IQ ConceptsIntelligence/Age NormStandards used to compare someone's performance to others their age.
Mental AgeAge level at which someone performs intellectually.
IQ ScoreModern formula is based on comparing your performance to people your age.
Average IQ = 100.
Normal DistributionScores cluster around average in a bell-shaped curve.
Genetics & EnvironmentIntelligence is:
Partially genetic
Partially environmental (education, parenting, poverty, nutrition)
Reflex vs. InstinctReflex: A simple, automatic response to a specific stimulus (knee jerk, blinking). Not learned.
Instinct: More complex, innate behavioral patterns triggered by broader events (migration, mating behaviors). Also not learned, but more elaborate than reflexes.
HabituationA type of non-associative learning where repeated exposure to a stimulus causes a decrease in response.
Example: No longer noticing the sound of a fan.
Associative LearningLearning that two events go together.
Two main types:
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Classical ConditioningLearning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that already produces a response.
Key TermsUnconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
A stimulus that naturally produces a response (food).
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
A natural, reflexive response to the UCS (salivation to food).
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
A stimulus that initially causes no response (bell before conditioning).
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Former NS that now triggers a learned response (bell after conditioning).
Conditioned Response (CR)
The learned response to the CS (salivation to bell).
Processes in Classical ConditioningAcquisitionLearning phase where the NS becomes the CS.
Order matters:
➡️ NS should come right before the UCS to form the strongest association.
ExtinctionWeakening of the CR when the CS is presented without the UCS.
Example: Bell repeatedly rung without food → salivation decreases.
Stimulus GeneralizationA CR happens to a stimulus similar to the CS.
Dog salivates to a similar-sounding bell.
Stimulus DiscriminationLearning to respond only to the CS, not to similar stimuli.
Little Albert ExperimentConducted by John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner.
Demonstrated classical conditioning of fear.
Albert learned to fear a white rat after it was paired with a loud noise.
Showed:
Emotions can be learned.
Stimulus generalization (he feared similar white/furry things).
Little Peter ExperimentConducted by Mary Cover Jones.
Demonstrated how fear can be unlearned.
Peter was gradually exposed to a feared rabbit while receiving something pleasant (candy).
Systematic DesensitizationA therapy technique using gradual exposure + relaxation to reduce phobias.
Based on classical conditioning principles.
Taste AversionA special form of classical conditioning:
Only one pairing needed.
Long delay between eating food and getting sick.
Evolution-based survival mechanism.
Operant ConditioningLearning based on consequences (rewards or punishments).
Reinforcement vs. PunishmentReinforcement → Increases a behavior.
Punishment → Decreases a behavior.
Extinguishing Operant BehaviorStop the reinforcement → behavior weakens.
4 Types of ConsequencesType
Definition
Positive Reinforcement
Add something good → behavior increases (give candy).
Negative Reinforcement
Remove something bad → behavior increases (seatbelt stops beeping).
Positive Punishment
Add something bad → behavior decreases (scolding).
Negative Punishment
Remove something good → behavior decreases (take phone away).
Continuous vs. Partial ReinforcementContinuous: Reward every time → fast learning but weak resistance to extinction.
Partial (intermittent): Reward sometimes → slower learning but very strong resistance to extinction.
➡️ Partial reinforcement is more resistant to extinction.
Drawbacks of PunishmentTeaches fear, not correct behavior.
Can cause aggression.
Behavior may be suppressed only when punisher is present.
Doesn't teach the desired behavior, only what not to do.
Drawback of ReinforcementCan reduce intrinsic motivation (doing something because you enjoy it).
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic MotivationIntrinsic: Doing something because it's enjoyable.
Extrinsic: Doing something for reward or to avoid punishment.
Latent LearningLearning that occurs without reinforcement, but isn't shown until needed.
Tolman's rats learned the maze even without rewards.
Observational LearningLearning by watching others.
4 Factors That Increase Imitation (lecture)Attention (we must pay attention)
Retention (remember what we saw)
Reproduction (ability to imitate)
Motivation (reason to imitate)
Vicarious Reinforcement/PunishmentSeeing someone else get rewarded or punished influences whether we imitate the behavior.
END OF CHAPTER 6
✅ Chapter 7 — Cognition
Mental RepresentationMental Representation: An internal mental symbol used to stand in for objects, ideas, or events.
Analog vs. Symbolic RepresentationAnalog: Picture-like mental images (imagining your bedroom).
Symbolic: Abstract representations like words or numbers ("cat," "3").
Concepts & PrototypesConcept: A mental category (e.g., "fruit").
Prototype: The best or most typical example of a concept (e.g., apple = prototypical fruit).
Problem Solving & Decision MakingInsightA sudden "Aha!" solution.
Trial-and-ErrorTrying different solutions until one works.
AlgorithmA step-by-step method that guarantees a correct answer (math formula).
HeuristicA mental shortcut; fast but can lead to errors.
5 Conditions We Use HeuristicsTime pressure
Limited information
Too much information
Low importance decisions
We want to avoid mental effort
Major Heuristics & BiasesAvailability HeuristicJudging likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind.
Leads to errors because memory ease ≠ real probability.
Simulation HeuristicImagining how events could have happened changes our judgments (e.g., "almost winning" feels worse).
Representativeness HeuristicJudging by similarity to a prototype; leads to ignoring actual statistics/base rates.
Anchoring & AdjustmentWe rely too heavily on an initial number (anchor) and adjust too little.
Framing effect: The way information is presented affects decisions (90% survival vs. 10% mortality).
Psychological BiasesOverconfidence Bias: We overestimate our accuracy.
Hindsight Bias: "I knew it all along."
Bias to Perceive Order in Random Events: We see patterns where none exist.
Confirmation Bias: Seeking information that confirms our beliefs.
IntelligenceSpearmanBelieved in one general intelligence: g.
Crystallized vs. Fluid IntelligenceCrystallized: Knowledge from experience (facts).
Fluid: Problem-solving, reasoning, flexibility.
Sternberg's Triarchic TheoryAnalytic Intelligence: Academic problem solving
Creative Intelligence: Novel solutions
Practical Intelligence: "Street smarts"
➡️ Analytic is most emphasized in schools.
Divergent vs. Convergent ThinkingDivergent: Many possible solutions (creativity).
Convergent: One right solution (tests).
Gardner's 9 IntelligencesBelieved people have multiple intelligences, and each person has one they excel most in.
(Examples: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, existential.)
Emotional IntelligenceAbility to understand, use, and manage emotions in yourself and others.
IQ ConceptsIntelligence/Age NormStandards used to compare someone's performance to others their age.
Mental AgeAge level at which someone performs intellectually.
IQ ScoreModern formula is based on comparing your performance to people your age.
Average IQ = 100.
Normal DistributionScores cluster around average in a bell-shaped curve.
Genetics & EnvironmentIntelligence is:
Partially genetic
Partially environmental (education, parenting, poverty, nutrition)
Reflex vs. InstinctReflex: A simple, automatic response to a specific stimulus (knee jerk, blinking). Not learned.
Instinct: More complex, innate behavioral patterns triggered by broader events (migration, mating behaviors). Also not learned, but more elaborate than reflexes.
HabituationA type of non-associative learning where repeated exposure to a stimulus causes a decrease in response.
Example: No longer noticing the sound of a fan.
Associative LearningLearning that two events go together.
Two main types:
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Classical ConditioningLearning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that already produces a response.
Key TermsUnconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
A stimulus that naturally produces a response (food).
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
A natural, reflexive response to the UCS (salivation to food).
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
A stimulus that initially causes no response (bell before conditioning).
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Former NS that now triggers a learned response (bell after conditioning).
Conditioned Response (CR)
The learned response to the CS (salivation to bell).
Processes in Classical ConditioningAcquisitionLearning phase where the NS becomes the CS.
Order matters:
➡️ NS should come right before the UCS to form the strongest association.
ExtinctionWeakening of the CR when the CS is presented without the UCS.
Example: Bell repeatedly rung without food → salivation decreases.
Stimulus GeneralizationA CR happens to a stimulus similar to the CS.
Dog salivates to a similar-sounding bell.
Stimulus DiscriminationLearning to respond only to the CS, not to similar stimuli.
Little Albert ExperimentConducted by John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner.
Demonstrated classical conditioning of fear.
Albert learned to fear a white rat after it was paired with a loud noise.
Showed:
Emotions can be learned.
Stimulus generalization (he feared similar white/furry things).
Little Peter ExperimentConducted by Mary Cover Jones.
Demonstrated how fear can be unlearned.
Peter was gradually exposed to a feared rabbit while receiving something pleasant (candy).
Systematic DesensitizationA therapy technique using gradual exposure + relaxation to reduce phobias.
Based on classical conditioning principles.
Taste AversionA special form of classical conditioning:
Only one pairing needed.
Long delay between eating food and getting sick.
Evolution-based survival mechanism.
Operant ConditioningLearning based on consequences (rewards or punishments).
Reinforcement vs. PunishmentReinforcement → Increases a behavior.
Punishment → Decreases a behavior.
Extinguishing Operant BehaviorStop the reinforcement → behavior weakens.
4 Types of ConsequencesType
Definition
Positive Reinforcement
Add something good → behavior increases (give candy).
Negative Reinforcement
Remove something bad → behavior increases (seatbelt stops beeping).
Positive Punishment
Add something bad → behavior decreases (scolding).
Negative Punishment
Remove something good → behavior decreases (take phone away).
Continuous vs. Partial ReinforcementContinuous: Reward every time → fast learning but weak resistance to extinction.
Partial (intermittent): Reward sometimes → slower learning but very strong resistance to extinction.
➡️ Partial reinforcement is more resistant to extinction.
Drawbacks of PunishmentTeaches fear, not correct behavior.
Can cause aggression.
Behavior may be suppressed only when punisher is present.
Doesn't teach the desired behavior, only what not to do.
Drawback of ReinforcementCan reduce intrinsic motivation (doing something because you enjoy it).
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic MotivationIntrinsic: Doing something because it's enjoyable.
Extrinsic: Doing something for reward or to avoid punishment.
Latent LearningLearning that occurs without reinforcement, but isn't shown until needed.
Tolman's rats learned the maze even without rewards.
Observational LearningLearning by watching others.
4 Factors That Increase Imitation (lecture)Attention (we must pay attention)
Retention (remember what we saw)
Reproduction (ability to imitate)
Motivation (reason to imitate)
Vicarious Reinforcement/PunishmentSeeing someone else get rewarded or punished influences whether we imitate the behavior.
END OF CHAPTER 6
✅ Chapter 7 — Cognition
Mental RepresentationMental Representation: An internal mental symbol used to stand in for objects, ideas, or events.
Analog vs. Symbolic RepresentationAnalog: Picture-like mental images (imagining your bedroom).
Symbolic: Abstract representations like words or numbers ("cat," "3").
Concepts & PrototypesConcept: A mental category (e.g., "fruit").
Prototype: The best or most typical example of a concept (e.g., apple = prototypical fruit).
Problem Solving & Decision MakingInsightA sudden "Aha!" solution.
Trial-and-ErrorTrying different solutions until one works.
AlgorithmA step-by-step method that guarantees a correct answer (math formula).
HeuristicA mental shortcut; fast but can lead to errors.
5 Conditions We Use HeuristicsTime pressure
Limited information
Too much information
Low importance decisions
We want to avoid mental effort
Major Heuristics & BiasesAvailability HeuristicJudging likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind.
Leads to errors because memory ease ≠ real probability.
Simulation HeuristicImagining how events could have happened changes our judgments (e.g., "almost winning" feels worse).
Representativeness HeuristicJudging by similarity to a prototype; leads to ignoring actual statistics/base rates.
Anchoring & AdjustmentWe rely too heavily on an initial number (anchor) and adjust too little.
Framing effect: The way information is presented affects decisions (90% survival vs. 10% mortality).
Psychological BiasesOverconfidence Bias: We overestimate our accuracy.
Hindsight Bias: "I knew it all along."
Bias to Perceive Order in Random Events: We see patterns where none exist.
Confirmation Bias: Seeking information that confirms our beliefs.
IntelligenceSpearmanBelieved in one general intelligence: g.
Crystallized vs. Fluid IntelligenceCrystallized: Knowledge from experience (facts).
Fluid: Problem-solving, reasoning, flexibility.
Sternberg's Triarchic TheoryAnalytic Intelligence: Academic problem solving
Creative Intelligence: Novel solutions
Practical Intelligence: "Street smarts"
➡️ Analytic is most emphasized in schools.
Divergent vs. Convergent ThinkingDivergent: Many possible solutions (creativity).
Convergent: One right solution (tests).
Gardner's 9 IntelligencesBelieved people have multiple intelligences, and each person has one they excel most in.
(Examples: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, existential.)
Emotional IntelligenceAbility to understand, use, and manage emotions in yourself and others.
IQ ConceptsIntelligence/Age NormStandards used to compare someone's performance to others their age.
Mental AgeAge level at which someone performs intellectually.
IQ ScoreModern formula is based on comparing your performance to people your age.
Average IQ = 100.
Normal DistributionScores cluster around average in a bell-shaped curve.
Genetics & EnvironmentIntelligence is:
Partially genetic
Partially environmental (education, parenting, poverty, nutrition)
Reflex vs. InstinctReflex: A simple, automatic response to a specific stimulus (knee jerk, blinking). Not learned.
Instinct: More complex, innate behavioral patterns triggered by broader events (migration, mating behaviors). Also not learned, but more elaborate than reflexes.
HabituationA type of non-associative learning where repeated exposure to a stimulus causes a decrease in response.
Example: No longer noticing the sound of a fan.
Associative LearningLearning that two events go together.
Two main types:
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Classical ConditioningLearning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that already produces a response.
Key TermsUnconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
A stimulus that naturally produces a response (food).
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
A natural, reflexive response to the UCS (salivation to food).
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
A stimulus that initially causes no response (bell before conditioning).
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Former NS that now triggers a learned response (bell after conditioning).
Conditioned Response (CR)
The learned response to the CS (salivation to bell).
Processes in Classical ConditioningAcquisitionLearning phase where the NS becomes the CS.
Order matters:
➡️ NS should come right before the UCS to form the strongest association.
ExtinctionWeakening of the CR when the CS is presented without the UCS.
Example: Bell repeatedly rung without food → salivation decreases.
Stimulus GeneralizationA CR happens to a stimulus similar to the CS.
Dog salivates to a similar-sounding bell.
Stimulus DiscriminationLearning to respond only to the CS, not to similar stimuli.
Little Albert ExperimentConducted by John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner.
Demonstrated classical conditioning of fear.
Albert learned to fear a white rat after it was paired with a loud noise.
Showed:
Emotions can be learned.
Stimulus generalization (he feared similar white/furry things).
Little Peter ExperimentConducted by Mary Cover Jones.
Demonstrated how fear can be unlearned.
Peter was gradually exposed to a feared rabbit while receiving something pleasant (candy).
Systematic DesensitizationA therapy technique using gradual exposure + relaxation to reduce phobias.
Based on classical conditioning principles.
Taste AversionA special form of classical conditioning:
Only one pairing needed.
Long delay between eating food and getting sick.
Evolution-based survival mechanism.
Operant ConditioningLearning based on consequences (rewards or punishments).
Reinforcement vs. PunishmentReinforcement → Increases a behavior.
Punishment → Decreases a behavior.
Extinguishing Operant BehaviorStop the reinforcement → behavior weakens.
4 Types of ConsequencesType
Definition
Positive Reinforcement
Add something good → behavior increases (give candy).
Negative Reinforcement
Remove something bad → behavior increases (seatbelt stops beeping).
Positive Punishment
Add something bad → behavior decreases (scolding).
Negative Punishment
Remove something good → behavior decreases (take phone away).
Continuous vs. Partial ReinforcementContinuous: Reward every time → fast learning but weak resistance to extinction.
Partial (intermittent): Reward sometimes → slower learning but very strong resistance to extinction.
➡️ Partial reinforcement is more resistant to extinction.
Drawbacks of PunishmentTeaches fear, not correct behavior.
Can cause aggression.
Behavior may be suppressed only when punisher is present.
Doesn't teach the desired behavior, only what not to do.
Drawback of ReinforcementCan reduce intrinsic motivation (doing something because you enjoy it).
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic MotivationIntrinsic: Doing something because it's enjoyable.
Extrinsic: Doing something for reward or to avoid punishment.
Latent LearningLearning that occurs without reinforcement, but isn't shown until needed.
Tolman's rats learned the maze even without rewards.
Observational LearningLearning by watching others.
4 Factors That Increase Imitation (lecture)Attention (we must pay attention)
Retention (remember what we saw)
Reproduction (ability to imitate)
Motivation (reason to imitate)
Vicarious Reinforcement/PunishmentSeeing someone else get rewarded or punished influences whether we imitate the behavior.
END OF CHAPTER 6
✅ Chapter 7 — Cognition
Mental RepresentationMental Representation: An internal mental symbol used to stand in for objects, ideas, or events.
Analog vs. Symbolic RepresentationAnalog: Picture-like mental images (imagining your bedroom).
Symbolic: Abstract representations like words or numbers ("cat," "3").
Concepts & PrototypesConcept: A mental category (e.g., "fruit").
Prototype: The best or most typical example of a concept (e.g., apple = prototypical fruit).
Problem Solving & Decision MakingInsightA sudden "Aha!" solution.
Trial-and-ErrorTrying different solutions until one works.
AlgorithmA step-by-step method that guarantees a correct answer (math formula).
HeuristicA mental shortcut; fast but can lead to errors.
5 Conditions We Use HeuristicsTime pressure
Limited information
Too much information
Low importance decisions
We want to avoid mental effort
Major Heuristics & BiasesAvailability HeuristicJudging likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind.
Leads to errors because memory ease ≠ real probability.
Simulation HeuristicImagining how events could have happened changes our judgments (e.g., "almost winning" feels worse).
Representativeness HeuristicJudging by similarity to a prototype; leads to ignoring actual statistics/base rates.
Anchoring & AdjustmentWe rely too heavily on an initial number (anchor) and adjust too little.
Framing effect: The way information is presented affects decisions (90% survival vs. 10% mortality).
Psychological BiasesOverconfidence Bias: We overestimate our accuracy.
Hindsight Bias: "I knew it all along."
Bias to Perceive Order in Random Events: We see patterns where none exist.
Confirmation Bias: Seeking information that confirms our beliefs.
IntelligenceSpearmanBelieved in one general intelligence: g.
Crystallized vs. Fluid IntelligenceCrystallized: Knowledge from experience (facts).
Fluid: Problem-solving, reasoning, flexibility.
Sternberg's Triarchic TheoryAnalytic Intelligence: Academic problem solving
Creative Intelligence: Novel solutions
Practical Intelligence: "Street smarts"
➡️ Analytic is most emphasized in schools.
Divergent vs. Convergent ThinkingDivergent: Many possible solutions (creativity).
Convergent: One right solution (tests).
Gardner's 9 IntelligencesBelieved people have multiple intelligences, and each person has one they excel most in.
(Examples: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, existential.)
Emotional IntelligenceAbility to understand, use, and manage emotions in yourself and others.
IQ ConceptsIntelligence/Age NormStandards used to compare someone's performance to others their age.
Mental AgeAge level at which someone performs intellectually.
IQ ScoreModern formula is based on comparing your performance to people your age.
Average IQ = 100.
Normal DistributionScores cluster around average in a bell-shaped curve.
Genetics & EnvironmentIntelligence is:
Partially genetic
Partially environmental (education, parenting, poverty, nutrition)